vill2-第30部分

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ion。　All　holdings　are　considered　exclusively　from　the　economic　point　of　view；　the　test　of　security　and　precarious　occupation　is　never　applied。　It　is　constantly　noticed；　on　the　other　hand；　whether　a　plot　pays　rent　or　provides　labour；　whether　it　can　be　transferred　from　one　category　into　the　other；　on　what　conditions　demesne　land　has　been　given　to　peasants；　and　whether　it　is　expedient　to　alter　them。　Let　us　take　the　following　case　as　an　instance：　John　Clerk　had　in　the　time　of　Bishop　Henry　one　virgate　in　Domerham　and　holds　it　now；　and　another　virgate　in　Stapelham　for　ten　shillings。　When　he　farmed　the　Domerham　manor　he　left　on　his　own　authority　the　virgate　in　Stapelham　and　took　half　a　virgate　in　Domerham；　as　it　was　nearer。　This　half　virgate　ought　to　work　and　is　now　free。　And　the　virgate　in　Stapelbam；　though　it　was　free　formerly；　has　to　work　now；　after　the　exchange。（95*）　The　opposition　is　quite　clear；　and　entirely　suited　to　the　list　of　questions　addressed　to　the　jury。　The　meaning　of　the　terms　free　and　freedom　is　also　brought　out　by　the　following　example。　Anderd　Budde　holds　half　a　virgate　of　demesne　land；　from　the　time　of　Bishop　Henry；　by　the　same　services　as　all　who　hold　so　much。　The　village　has　to　render　as　gift　twenty…nine　shillings　and　six　pence。　Six　pence　are　wanting　（to　complete　the　thirty　shillings？）　because　Anderd　holds　more　freely　than　his　ancestors　used　to。（96*）　　　　　Such　phraseology　is　by　no　means　restricted　to　one　document　or　one　locality。　In　a　Ramsey　Cartulary　we　find　the　following　entry　in　regard　to　a　Huntingdonshire　manor：　'Of　seven　hides　one　is　free；　of　the　remaining　six　two　virgates　pay　rent。　The　holder　pays　with　the　villains；　he　pays　merchet　and　joins　in　the　boon…work　as　the　villains。　The　remaining　five　hides　and　three　virgates　are　in　pure　villainage。'（97*）　The　gradation　is　somewhat　more　complex　here　than　in　the　Somersetshire　instance：　besides　free　land　and　working　land　we　have　a　separate　division　for　mixed　cases。　But　the　foundation　is　the　same　in　both　documents。　Earlier　surveys　of　Ramsey　Abbey　show　the　same　classification　of　holding　into　free　and　working　virgates　（liberae；　ad　opus（98*））。　　　　　In　opposition　to　free　service；　that　is　rent；　we　find　both　the　villenagium　（99*）　and　the　terra　consuetudinaria　or　custoniaria；（100*）　burdened　with　the　usual　rural　work。　Sometimes　the　document　points　out　that　land　has　been　freed　or　exempted　from　the　common　duties　of　the　village；（101*）　in　regard　to　manorial　work　the　village　formed　a　compact　body。　The　notion　which　I　have　been　explaining　lies　at　the　bottom　of　a　curious　designation　sometimes　applied　to　base　tenure　in　the　earlier　documents　of　our　period　　terra　ad　furcam　et　flagellum；（102*）　fleyland。　The　Latin　expression　has　been　construed　to　mean　land　held　by　a　person　under　the　lord's　jurisdiction；　under　his　gallows　and　his　whip；　but　this　explanation　is　entirely　false。　The　meaning　is；　that　a　base　holding　is　occupied　by　people　who　have　to　work　with　pitchfork　and　flail；　and　may　be　other　instruments　of　agriculture；（103*）　instead　of　simply　paying　rent。　In　view　of　such　a　phraseology　the　same　tenement　could　alternately　be　considered　as　a　free　or　a　servile　one；　according　to　its　changing　obligations。（104*）　Some　surveys　insert　two　parallel　descriptions　of　duties　which　are　meant　to　fit　both　eventualities；　when　the　land　is　ad　opus；　it　owes　such　and　such　services；　when　it　is　ad　censum；　it　pays　so　much　rent。　It　must　be　added；　that　in　a　vast　majority　of　cases　rent…paying　land　retains　some　remnants　of　services；　and；　vice　versa；　land　subjected　to　village…work　pays　small　rents；（105*）　the　general　quality　of　the　holding　is　made　to　depend　on　the　prevailing　character　of　the　duties。　　　　　The　double　sense　in　which　the　terms　'free　tenure'　and　'servile　tenure'　are　used　should　be　specially　noticed；　because　it　lays　bare　the　intimate　connexion　between　the　formal　divisions　of　feudal　law　and　the　conditions　of　economic　reality。　I　have　laid　stress　on　the　contrast　between　the　two　phraseologies；　but；　of　course；　they　could　not　be　in　use　at　the　same　time　without　depending　more　or　less　on　each　other。　And　it　is　not　difficult　to　see；　that　the　legal　is　a　modification　of　the　economic　use　of　terms；　that　it　reduces　to　one…sided　simplicity　those　general　facts　which　the　evidence　of　every　day　life　puts　before　us　in　a　loose　and　complex　manner；　that　land　is　really　free　which　is　not　placed　in　a　constant　working　submission　to　the　manor；　in　constant　co…operation　with　other　plots；　similarly　arranged　to　help　and　to　serve　in　the　manor。　However　heavy　the　rent；　the　land　that　pays　it　has　become　independent　in　point　of　husbandry；　its　dependence　appears　as　a　matter　of　agreement；　and　not　an　economic　tie。　When　a　tenement　is　for　economic　purposes　subordinated　to　the　general　management　of　the　manor；　there　is　almost　of　necessity　a　degree　of　uncertainty　in　its　tenure；　it　is　a　satellite　whose　motions　are　controlled　by　the　body　round　which　it　revolves。　On　the　other　hand；　mere　payments　in　money　look　like　the　outcome　of　some　sort　of　agreement；　and　are　naturally　thought　of　as　the　result　of　contract。　　　　　Everything　is　subject　to　the　will　and　pleasure　of　the　lord；　but　this　will　and　pleasure　does　not　find　expression　in　any　capricious　interference　which　would　have　wantonly　destroyed　order　and　rule　in　village　life。　Under　cover　of　this　will；　customs　are　forming　themselves　which　regulate　the　constantly　recurring　events　of　marriage；　succession；　alienation；　and　the　like。　Curious　combinations　arise；　which　reflect　faithfully　the　complex　elements　of　village　life。　An　instruction　for　stewards　provides；　for　instance；　that　one　person　ought　not　to　hold　several　tenements；　where　such　agglomerations　exist　already　they　ought　to　be　destroyed；　if　it　can　be　done　conveniently　and　honestly。（106*）　In　one　of　the　manors　of　St。　Paul　of　London　the　plots　held　by　the　ploughmen　are　said　to　be　resumable　by　the　lord　without　any　injury　to　hereditary　succession。（107*）　'The　rule　of　hereditary　succession'　is　affirmed　in　regard　to　normal　holdings　by　this　very　exception。　We　find　already　the　phrase　of　which　the　royal　courts　availed　themselves；　when　in　later　days　they　extended　their　protection　to　this　base　tenure：　the　tenants　hold　'by　the　custom　of　the　manor。'（108*）　On　the　strength　of　such　custom　the　life　of　the　unfree　peasantry　takes　a　shape　closely　resembling　that　of　the　free　population；　transactions　and　rights　spring　into　being　which　find　their　exact　parallel　in　the　common　law　of　the　'free　and　lawful'　portion　of　the　community。　Walter；　a　villain　of　St。　Alban's；　surrenders　into　the　hand　of　the　monastery　two　curtilages；　which　are　thereupon　granted　to　his　daughter　and　her　husband　for　life；　upon　condition　that　after　their　death　the　land　is　to　revert　to　Walter　or　to　his　heirs。（109*）　An　Essex　villain　claims　succession　by　hereditary　right；　for　himself　and　his　heirs。（110*）　I　have　already　spoken　of　the　'free　bench'　to　be　found　equally　on　free　and　unfree　land。　In　the　same　way　there　exists　a　parallel　to　the　so…called　'Curtesy　of　England'　in　the　practice　of　manorial　courts；　if　the　son　inherits　land　from　his　mother　during　his　father's　life；　the　latter　enjoys　possession　during　his　life；　or；　it　may　be。　only　until　his　son　comes　of　age。　In　view　of　all　this　manorial　documents　have　to　draw　a　distinction　between　tenements　in　villainage　and　land　held　at　the　will　of　the　lord；　not　in　the　general；　but　in　the　special　and　literal　sense　of　the　term。（111*）　From　a　formal　point　of　view；　villain　tenure　by　custom　obtained　its　specific　character　and　its　name　from　a　symbolical　act　performed　in　open　Court　by　the　steward；　a　rod　was　handed　over　to　the　new　holder　by　the　lord's　representative；　and　a　corresponding　entry　made　in　the　roll　of　the　Court。　Hence　the　expression　tenere　per　virgam　aut　per　rotulum　Curie。（112*）　　　　　I　ought　perhaps　to　treat　here　of　the　different　and　interesting　forms　assumed　by　services　and　rents　as　consequences　of　manorial　organisation。　But　I　think　that　this　subject。　will　be　understood　better　in　another　connexion；　namely　as　part　of　the　agrarian　system。　One　side　only　of　it　has　to　be　discussed　here。　Everywhere　customs　arise　which　defend　the　villains　from　capricious　extortions　on　the　part　of　the　lord　and　steward。　These　customs　mostly　get　'inbreviated'（113*）　described　in　surveys　and　cartularies；　and　although　they　have　no　legally　binding　power；　they　certainly　represent　a　great　moral　authority　and　are　followed　in　most　cases。　　　　　A　very　characteristic　expression　of　their　influence　may　be　found　in　the　fact　that　the　manorial　rolls　very　often　describe　in　detail；　not　only　what　the　peasants　are　bound　to　do　for　the　lord；　but　what　the　lord　must　do　for　the　peasants；　especially　when　and　how　he　is　to　feed　them。　Of　course；　the　origin　of　such　usage　cannot　be　traced　to　anything　like　a　right　on　the　part　of　the　villain；　it　comes　from　the　landlord's　concessions　and　good…will；　but　grace　loses　its　exceptional　aspect　in　this　case　and　leads　to　a　morally　binding　obligation。（114*）　When　the　villain　brings　his　yearly　rent　to　his　lord；　the　latter　often　invites　him　to　his　table。（115*）　Very　common　is　the　practice　of　providing　a　meal　for　the　labourers　on　the　boon…days；　the　days　on　which　the　whole　population　of　the　village　had　to　work　for　the　lord　in　the　most　busy　time　of　the　summer　and　autumn。　Such　boon…work　was　considered　as　a　kind　of　surplus　demand；　it　excee