vill3-第26部分

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　inquests　show　that　those　who　farmed　the　estates　had　extensive　rights　as　to　the　use　of　domanial　land；　but　their　dealings　with　the　customary　tenants　were　always　open　to　a　revision　by　the　landlords。　A　confirmation　like　this　Beauchamp　one　transferred　the　plot　of　demesne　land　into　the　class　of　free　tenements；　and　created　a　tenure　defensible　at　law。（43*）　All　such　facts　increase　in　number　and　importance　with　the　increase　of　population：　under　its　pressure　the　area　of　direct　cultivation　for　the　lord　is　gradually　lessened；　and　in　many　surveys　we　find　a　sort　of　belt　formed　around　the　home　farm　by　the　intrusion　of　the　dependent　people　into　the　limits　of　the　demesne。（44*）　The　Domesday　of　St。　Paul's　is　especially　instructive　on　this　point。　Every　estate　shows　one　part　of　the　lord's　land　in　the　possession　of　the　peasants；　sometimes　the　'dominicum　antiquitus　assisum'　is　followed　by　'terrae　de　novo　traditae。'（45*）　　　　　A　second　group　of　free　tenements　consists　of　plots　which　did　not　belong　either　to　the　demesne　or　to　the　regular　holdings　in　the　fields；　but　lay　by　the　side　of　these　holdings　and　were　parcelled　out　in　varying　quantity　and　under　various　conditions。　We　may　begin　by　noticing　the　growth　of　leases。　There　is　no　doubt　that　the　lease…system　was　growing　in　the　thirteenth　century；　and　that　it　is　not　adequately　reflected　in　our　documents。　An　indirect　proof　of　this　is　given　by　the　fact；　that　legal　practice　was　labouring　to　discover　means　of　protection　for　possession　based　on　temporary　agreement。　The　writ　'Quare　ejecit　infra　terminum'　invented　by　William　Raleigh　between　1236　and　1240　protected　the　possession　of　the　'tenant　for　term　of　years'　who　formerly　had　been　regarded　as　having　no　more　than　a　personal　right　enforceable　by　an　action　of　covenant。（46*）　　　　　Manorial　extents　are　sparing　in　their　notices　of　leases　because　their　object　is　to　picture　the　distribution　of　ownership；　and　temporary　agreements　are　beyond　their　range。　But　it　is　not　uncommon　to　find　a　man　holding　a　small　piece　of　land　for　his　life　at　a　substantial　rent。　In　this　case　his　tenure　is　reckoned　freehold；　but　still　he　holds　under　what　we　should　now　call　a　lease　for　life；　the　rent　is　a　substantial　return　for　the　land　that　he　has　hired。　That　English　law　should　regard　these　tenants　under　leases　for　life　as　freeholders；　should；　that　is；　throw　them　into　one　great　class　with　tenants　who　have　heritable　rights；　who　do　but　military　service　or　nominal　service；　who　are　in　fact　if　not　in　name　the　owners　of　the　land；　is　very　remarkable；　hirers　are　mingled　with　owners；　because　according　to　the　great　generalisation　of　English　feudalism　every　owner　is　after　all　but　a　hirer。　Still　we　can　mark　off　for　economic　purposes　a　class　of　tenants　whom　we　may　call　'life…leaseholders；'　and　we　can　see　also　a　smaller　class　of　leaseholders　who　hold　for　terms　of　years。（47*）　They　often　seem　to　owe　their　existence　to　the　action　of　the　manorial　bailiffs　or　the　farmers　to　whom　the　demesne　has　been　let。　We　are　told　that　such　and　such　a　person　has　'entered'　the　tenement　by　the　leave　of　such　and　such　a　farmer　or　bailiff；　or　that　the　tenement　does　not　belong　to　the　occupier　by　hereditary　right；　but　by　the　bailiff's　precept。（48*）　Remarks　of　that　kind　seem　to　mean　that　these　rent…paying　plots；　liberated　from　servile　duties；　were　especially　liable　to　the　interference　of　manorial　officers。　Limits　of　time　are　rarely　mentioned；　and　leases　for　life　seem　to　be　the　general　rule。（49*）　The　tenure　is　only　in　the　course　of　formation；　and　by　no　means　clearly　defined。　One　does　not　even　see；　for　instance；　how　the　question　of　implements　and　stock　was　settled　　whether　they　were　provided　by　the　landlord　or　by　the　tenant。　　　　　We　feel　our　way　with　much　greater　security　in　another　direction。　The　fields　of　the　village　contain　many　a　nook　or　odd　bit　which　cannot　be　squeezed　into　the　virgate　arrangement　and　into　the　system　of　work　and　duties　connected　with　it。　These　'subsecivae；'　as　the　Romans　would　have　said；　were　always　distributed　for　small　rents　in　kind　or　in　money。（50*）　The　manorial　administration　may　also　exclude　from　the　common　arrangement　entire　areas　of　land　which　it　is　thought　advantageous　to　give　out　for　rent。　Those　who　take　it　are　mostly　the　same　villagers　who　possess　the　regular　holdings；　but　their　title　is　different；　in　one　case　it　is　based　on　agreement；　in　the　other　on　custom。（51*）　Plots　of　this　kind　are　called　forlands。（52*）　In　close　connexion　with　them　we　find　the　essarts　or　assarts…land　newly　reclaimed　from　the　waste；　and　therefore　not　mapped　out　according　to　the　original　plan　of　possession　and　service。　The　Surveys　often　mark　the　different　epochs　of　cultivation　　the　old　and　the　new　essarts。（53*）　The　documents　show　also　that　the　spread　of　the　area　under　cultivation　was　effected　in　different　ways；　sometimes　by　a　single　settler　with　help　from　the　lord；（54*）　and　sometimes　by　the　entire　village；　or　at　any　rate　by　a　large　group　of　peasants　who　club　together　for　the　purpose。（55*）　In　the　first　case　there　was　no　reason　for　bringing　the　reclaimed　space　under　the　sway　of　the　compulsory　rotation　of　crops　or　the　other　regulations　of　communal　agriculture。　In　the　second；　the　distribution　of　the　acres　and　strips　among　the　various　tenants　was　proportioned　to　their　holdings　in　the　ancient　lands　of　the　village。　The　rents　on　essart　land　seem　very　low；　and　no　wonder：　everywhere　in　the　world　the　advance　of　cultivation　has　been　made　the　starting…point　of　privileged　occupation　and　light　taxation。　The　Roman　Empire　introduced　the　emphyteusis　as　a　contract　in　favour　of　the　pioneers　of　cultivation；　the　French　feudal　law　endowed　the　hotes　（hospites）　on　newly　reclaimed　land　with　all　kinds　of　advantages。　English　practice　is　not　so　explicit　on　this　point；　but　it　is　not　difficult　to　gather　from　the　Surveys　that　it　was　not　blind　to　the　necessity　of　patronising　agricultural　progress　and　encouraging　it　by　favourable　terms。　　　　　Of　mol…land　I　have　already　spoken　in　another　chapter。　I　will　only　point　out　now　that　this　class　of　tenements　appears　to　have　been　a　very　common　one。　Thirteenth　century　surveys　often　describe　certain　holdings　in　two　different　ways…on　the　supposition　of　their　paying　rent；　and　also　on　that　of　their　rendering　labour…services；　when　they　pay　rent　they　pay　so　much；　when　they　supply　labour　they　supply　so　much。　By　the　side　of　such　holdings；　which　are　wavering；　as　it　were；　between　the　two　systems；　we　find　the　terra　assisa　or　ad　censum。　This　class；　to　which　molland　evidently　belongs；　is　distinguished　from　free　tenure　by　the　fact　that　its　rent　is　regarded　as　a　manorial　arrangement；　there　is　no　formal　agreement　and　no　charter；　and　therefore　no　action　before　the　king's　courts　to　guard　against　disseisin　or　increase　of　services。　In　practice　the　difference　is　not　felt　very　keenly；　and　these　tenements　gradually　came　to　be　regarded　as　'free'　in　every　sense。　A　characteristic　feature　of　the　movement　may　be　noticed　in　the　terms　'Socagium　ad　placitum'　and　'Socagium　villani'。（56*）　These　expressions　occur　in　the　documents；　although　they　are　not　very　common。　It　would　be　hard　to　explain　them　otherwise　than　from　the　point　of　view　indicated　just　now。　The　tenement　is　paying　a　fixed　and　certain　rent　and　therefore　socage；　but　it　is　not　defended　by　feoffment　and　charter。　It　is　not　recognised　by　law；　and　therefore　it　remains　at　the　will　of　the　lord　and　unfree。（57*）　The　grant　of　a　charter　would　raise　it　to　the　legal　standing　of　free　land。　　　　　Every　student　of　manorial　documents　will　certainly　be　struck　by　one　well…marked　difference　between　villain　tenements　and　free　tenements　as　described　in　the　extents　and　surveys。　The　tenants　in　villainage　generally　appear　arranged　into　large　groups；　in　which　every　man　holds；　works；　and　pays　exactly　as　his　fellows；　so　that　when　the　tenement　and　services　of　some　one　tenant　have　been　described　we　then　read　that　the　other　tenants　hold　similar　tenements　and　owe　similar　services。　On　the　other　hand；　the　freeholds　seem　scattered　at　random　without　any　definite　plan　of　arrangement；　parcelled　up　into　unequal　portions；　and　subjected　to　entirely　different　duties。　One　man　holds　ten　acres　and　pays　three　shillings　for　them；　another　has　eight　and　a　half　acres　and　gives　a　pound　of　pepper　to　his　lord；　a　third　is　possessed　of　twenty…three　acres；　pays　4s。　6d。；　and　sends　his　dependants　to　three　boonworks；　a　fourth　brings　one　penny　and　some　poultry　in　return　for　his　one　acre。　The　regularity　of　the　villain　system　seems　entirely　opposed　to　the　capricious　and　disorderly　phenomena　of　free　tenure。　　　　　And　this　fact　seems　naturally　connected　with　some　remarkable　features　of　social　organisation。　No　wonder　that　free　land　is　cut　up　into　irregular　plots：　we　know　that　it　may　be　divided　and　accumulated　by　inheritance　and　alienation；　whereas　villain　land　is　held　together　in　rigid　unity　by　the　fact　that　it　is；　properly　speaking；　the　lord's　and　not　the　villain's　land。　Besides；　all　the　variations　of　free　tenure　which　we　have　discussed　hitherto　have　one　thing　in　common；　they　are　produced　by　express　agreement　between　lord　and　tenant　as　to　the　nature　and　amount　of　services　required　from　the　tenant。　Whether　we　take　the　case　of　a　villain　receiving　a　few　acres　in　addition　to　his　holding；　or　that　of　a　servant　recompensed　by　the　grant　of　a　privileged　plot；　or　that　of　a　peasant　confirmed　in　the