vill3-第17部分

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e　other　to　the　lord；　that　is　to　say；　the　labourer　escapes　one　day's　work　altogether。　But　the　general　course　seems　to　have　been　to　liberate　the　peasants　from　work　both　on　occasion　of　a　festival　and　if　the　weather　was　exceptionally　inclement。（83*）　Both　facts　are　not　without　importance：　it　must　be　remembered　that　the　number　of　Church　festivals　was　a　very　considerable　one　in　those　days。　Again；　although　the　stewards　were　not　likely　to　be　very　sentimental　as　to　bad　weather；　the　usual　test　of　cold　in　case　of　ploughing　seems　to　have　been　the　hardness　of　the　soil　　a　certain　percentage　of　free　days　must　have　occurred　during　the　winter　at　least。　And　what　is　even　more　to　be　considered　　when　the　men　were　very　strictly　kept　to　their　week…work　under　unfavourable　circumstances；　the　landlord　must　have　gained　very　little　although　the　working　people　suffered　much。　The　reader　may　easily　fancy　the　effects　of　what　must　have　been　a　very　common　occurrence；　when　the　village　householders　sent　out　their　ploughs　on　heavy　clay　in　torrents　of　rain。　The　system　of　customary　work　on　certain　days　was　especially　clumsy　in　such　respects；　and　it　is　worth　notice　that　in　harvest…time　the　landlords　rely　chiefly　on　boon…days。　These　were　not　irrevocably　fixed；　and　could　be　shifted　according　to　the　state　of　the　weather。　Still　the　week…work　was　so　important　an　item　in　the　general　arrangement　of　labour…services　that　the　inconveniences　described　must　have　acted　powerfully　in　favour　of　commutation。　　　　　Of　course；　the　passage　from　one　system　to　the　other；　however　desirable　for　the　parties　concerned；　was　not　to　be　effected　easily　and　at　once：　a　considerable　amount　of　capital　in　the　hands　of　the　peasantry　was　required　to　make　it　possible；　and　another　necessary　requirement　was　a　sufficient　circulation　of　money。　While　these　were　wanting　the　people　had　to　abide　by　the　old　labour　system。　The　facts　we　have　been　discussing　give　indirect　proof　that　there　was　not　much　room　for　arbitrary　changes　in　this　system。　Everything　seems　ruled　and　settled　for　ever。　It　may　happen；　of　course；　that　notwithstanding　the　supposed　equality　between　the　economic　strength　of　the；　different　holdings；　some　tenants　are　unable　to　fulfil　the　duties　which　their　companions　perform。（84*）　As　it　was　noticed　before；　the　shares　could　not　be　made　to　correspond　absolutely　to　each　other；　and　the　distribution　of　work　and　payments　according　to　a　definite　pattern　was　often　only　approximate。（85*）　Again；　the　lord　had　some　latitude　in　selecting　one　or　the　other　kind　of　service　to　be　performed　by　his　men。（86*）　But；　speaking　generally；　the　settlement　of　duties　was　a　very　constant　one；　and　manorial　documents　testify　that　every　attempt　by　the　lord　to　dictate　a　change　was　met　by　emphatic　protests　on　the　part　of　the　peasantry。（87*）　The　tenacity　of　custom　may　be　gathered　from　the　fact　that　when　we　chance　to　possess　two　sets　of　extents　following　each　other　after　a　very　considerable　lapse　of　time；　the　renders　in　kind　and　the　labour…services　remain　unmodified　in　the　main。（88*）　One　has　to　guard　especially　against　the　assumption　that　such　expressions　as　'to　do　whatever　he　is　bid'　or　'whatever　the　lord　commands'　imply　a　complete　servility　of　the　tenant　and　unrestricted　power　on　the　part　of　the　lord　to　exploit　his　subordinate　according　to　his　pleasure。　Such　expressions　have　been　used　as　a　test　of　the　degree　of　subjection　of　the　villains　at　different　epochs；　it　has　been　contended；　that　the　earlier　our　evidence　is；　the　more　complete　the　lord's　sway　appears　to　be。（89*）　The　expressions　quoted　above　may　seem　at　first　glance　to　countenance　the　idea；　but　an　attentive　and　extended　study　of　the　documents　will　easily　show　that；　save　in　exceptional　cases；　the　earlier　records　are　by　no　means　harder　in　their　treatment　of　the　peasantry　than　the　later。　The　eleventh　century　is；　if　anything；　more　favourable　to　the　subjected　class　as　regards　the　imposition　of　labour…services　than　the　thirteenth；　and　we　shall　see　by…and…by　that　the　observation　applies　even　more　to　Saxon　times。　In　the　light　of　such　a　general　comparison；　we　have　to　explain　the　above…mentioned　phrases　in　a　different　way。　'Whatever　he　is　bid'　applies　to　the　quality　and　not　to　the　quantity　of　the　work。（90*）　It　does　not　mean　that　the　steward　has　a　right　to　order　the　peasant　about　like　a　slave；　to　tear　him　at　pleasure　from　his　own　work；　and　to　increase　his　burden　whenever　he　likes。　It　means　simply　that　such　and　such　a　virgater　or　cotter　has　to　appear　in　person　or　by　proxy　to　perform　his　weekwork　of　three　days；　or　two　days；　or　four　days；　according　to　the　case；　and　that　it　is　not　settled　beforehand　what　kind　of　work　he　is　to　perform。　He　may　have　to　plough；　or　to　carry；　or　to　dig　trenches；　or　to　do　anything　else；　according　to　the　bidding　of　the　steward。　A　similar　instance　of　uncertainty　may　be　found　in　the　expression　'without　measure'（91*）　which　sometimes　occurs　in　extents。　It　would　be　preposterous　to　construe　it　as　an　indication　of　work　to　be　imposed　at　pleasure。　It　is　merely　a　phrase　used　to　suit　the　case　when　the　work　had　to　be　done　by　the　day　and　not　by　a　set　quantity；　if；　for　instance；　a　man　had　to　plough　so　many　times　and　the　number　of　acres　to　be　ploughed　was　not　specified。　It　is　true　that　such　vague　descriptions　are　mostly　found　in　older　surveys；　but　the　inference　to　be　drawn　from　the　fact　is　simply　that　manorial　customs　were　developing　gradually　from　rather　indefinite　rules　to　a　minute　settlement　of　details。　There　is　no　difference　in　the　main　principle；　that　the　dependent　householder　was　not　to　be　treated　as　a　slave　and　had　a　customary　right　to　devote　part　of　his　time　to　the　management　of　his　own　affairs。　　　　　Another　point　is　to　be　kept　well　in　view。　The　whole　arrangement　of　a　manorial　survey　is　constructed　with　the　holding　as　its　basis。　The　names　of　virgaters　and　cotters　are　certainly　mentioned　for　the　sake　of　clearness；　but　it　would　be　wrong　to　consider　the　duties　ascribed　to　them　as　aiming　at　the　person。　John　Newman　may　be　said　to　hold　a　virgate；　to　join　with　his　plough…oxen　in　the　tillage　of　twenty　acres；　to　attend　at　three　boon…days　in　harvest　time；　and　so　forth。　It　would　be　misleading　to　take　these　statements　very　literally　and　to　infer　that　John　Newman　was　alone　to　use　the　virgate　and　to　work　for　it。　He　was　most　probably　married；　and　possibly　had　grown…up　sons　to　help　him；　very　likely　a　brother　was　there　also；　and　even　servants；　poor　houseless　men　from　the　same　village　or　from　abroad。　Every　householder　has　a　more　or　less　considerable　following　（sequela）；（92*）　and　it　was　by　no　means　necessary　for　the　head　of　the　family　to　perform　all　manorial　work　in　his　own　person。　He　had　to　appear　or　to　send　one　workman　on　most　occasions　and　to　come　with　all　his　people　on　a　few　days　　the　boon…days　namely。　The　description　of　the　precariae　is　generally　the　only　occasion　when　the　extents　take　this　into　account；　namely；　that　there　was　a　considerable　population　in　the　village　besides　those　tenants　who　were　mentioned　by　name。（93*）　I　need　not　point　out；　that　the　fact　has　an　important　meaning。　The　medieval　system；　in　so　far　as　it　rested　on　the　distribution　of　holdings；　was　in　many　respects　more　advantageous　to　the　tenantry　than　to　the　lord。　It　was　superficial　in　a　sense；　and　from　the　point　of　view　of　the　lord　did　not　lead　to　a　satisfactory　result；　he　did　not　get　the　utmost　that　was　possible　from　his　subordinates。　The　factor　of　population　was　almost　disregarded　by　it；　households　very　differently　constituted　in　this　respect　were　assumed　to　be　equal；　and　the　tenacity　of　custom　prevented　an　increase　of　rents　and　labour…services　in　proportion　to　the　growth　of　resource　and　wealth　among　the　peasants。　Some　attempts　to　get　round　these　difficulties　are　noticeable　in　the　surveys：　they　are　mostly　connected　with　the　regulation　of　boon…works。　But　these　exceptional　measures　give　indirect　proof　of　the　very　insufficient　manner　in　which　the　question　was　generally　settled。　　　　　The　liabilities　of　the　peasantry　take　the　shape　of　produce；　labour；　and　money…rents。　Almost　in　every　manor　all　three　kinds　of　impositions　are　to　be　found　split　up　into　a　confusing　variety　of　customary　obligations。　It　is　out　of　the　question　to　trace　at　the　present　time；　with　the　help　of　fragmentary　and　later　material；　what　the　original　ideas　were　which　underlie　these　complicated　arrangements。　But　although　a　reduction　to　simple　guiding　principles　accounting　for　every　detail　cannot　be　attempted；　it　is　easy　to　perceive　that　chance　and　fancy　were　not　everything　in　these　matters。　The　several　duties　are　brought　together　so　as　to　form　a　certain　whole；　and　some　of　the　aims　pursued　in　the　grouping　may　be　perceived　even　now。　　　　　The　older　surveys　often　show　the　operation　of　a　system　which　is　adapted　by　its　very　essence　to　a　very　primitive　state　of　society。　It　may　be　called　the　farm…system；　the　word　farm　being　used　in　the　original　sense　of　the　Saxon　feorm；　food；　and　not　in　the　later　meaning　of　fixed　rent；　although　these　two　meanings　appear　intimately　connected　in　history。　The　farm　is　a　quantity　of　produce　necessary　for　the　maintenance　of　the　lord's　household　during　a　certain　period：　it　may　be　one　night's　or　week's　or　one　fortnight's　farm　accordingly。　A　very　good　instance　of　the　system　may　be　found　in　an　ancient　cartulary　of　Ramsey；　now　at　the　British　Museum；　which　though　compil