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Villainage　in　England

by　Paul　Vinogradoff




Second　Essay：　The　Manor　and　the　Village　Community


Chapter　1

The　Open　Field　System　and　the　Holdings

　　　　My　first　essay　has　been　devoted　to　the　peasantry　of　feudal　England　in　its　social　character。　We　have　had　to　examine　its　classes　or　divisions　in　their　relation　to　freedom；　personal　slavery；　and　praedial　serfage。　The　land　system　was　touched　upon　only　so　far　as　it　influenced　such　classification；　or　was　influenced　by　it。　　　　　But　no　correct　estimate　of　the　social　standing　of　the　peasantry　can　stop　here；　or　content　itself　with　legal　or　administrative　definitions。　In　no　degree　of　society　do　men　stand　isolated；　and　a　description　of　individual　status　alone　would　be　thoroughly　incomplete。　Men　stand　arranged　in　groups　for　economical　and　political　cooperation；　and　these　groups　are　composed　according　to　the　laws　of　the　division　and　hierarchical　organisation　of　labour；　composed；　that　is；　of　heterogeneous　elements；　of　members　who　have　to　fulfil　different　functions；　and　to　occupy　higher　and　lower　positions。　The　normal　group　which　forms　as　it　were　the　constitutive　cell　of　English　mediaeval　society　is　the　manor；　and　we　must　try　to　make　out　in　what　way　it　was　organised；　and　how　it　did　its　work　in　the　thirteenth　century；　at　the　time　of　fully　developed　feudalism。　　　　　The　structure　of　the　ordinary　manor　is　always　the　same。　Under　the　headship　of　the　lord　we　find　two　layers　of　population　the　villains　and　the　freeholders；　and　the　territory　occupied　divides　itself　accordingly　into　demesne　land　（1*）　and　'tributary　land'　（if　I　may　use　that　phrase）　of　two　different　classes。　The　cultivation　of　the　demesne　depends　to　a　certain　extent　on　the　work　supplied　by　the　tenants　of　the　tributary　land。　Rents　are　collected；　labour　supervised；　and　all　kinds　of　administrative　business　transacted；　by　a　set　of　manorial　officers　or　servants。　The　entire　population　is　grouped　into　a　village　community　which　centres　round　the　manorial　court　or　halimote；　which　is　both　council　and　tribunal。　My　investigation　will　necessarily　conform　to　this　typical　arrangement。　The　holding　of　the　peasant　is　the　natural　starting…point：　it　will　give　us　the　clue　to　the　whole　agrarian　system。　Next　may　come　that　part　of　the　territory　which　is　not　occupied　in　severalty；　but　used　in　common。　The　agrarian　obligations　with　regard　to　the　lord　and　the　cultivation　of　the　demesne　land　may　be　taken　up　afterwards。　The　position　of　privileged　people；　either　servants　or　freeholders；　must　be　discussed　by　itself；　as　an　exceptional　case。　And；　lastly；　the　question　will　have　to　be　put　to　what　extent　were　all　these　elements　welded　together　in　the　village　community；　and　under　the　sway　of　the　manorial　court？　　　　　The　chief　features　of　the　field…system　which　was　in　operation　in　England　during　the　middle　ages　have　been　sufficiently　cleared　up　by　modern　scholars；　especially　by　Nasse；　Thorold　Rogers；　and　Seebohm；　and　there　is　no　need　for　dwelling　at　length　on　the　subject。　Everybody　knows　that　the　arable　of　an　English　village　was　commonly　cultivated　under　a　three　years'　rotation　of　crops；（2*）　a　two　field　system　is　also　found　very　often；（3*）　there　are　some　instances　of　more　complex　arrangements；（4*）　but　they　are　very　rare；　and　appear　late…not　earlier　than　the　fourteenth　century。　Walter　of　Henley's　treatise　on　farming；　which　appears　to　belong　to　the　first　half　of　the　thirteenth；　mentions　only　the　first　two　systems；　and　its　estimate　of　the　plough…land　is　based　on　them。　In　the　case　of　a　three　field　rotation　a　hundred　and　eighty　acres　are　reckoned　to　the　plough；　a　hundred　and　sixty　in　a　system　of　two　courses。（5*）　We　find　the　same　estimate　in　the　chapters　on　husbandry　and　management　of　an　estate　which　are　inserted　in　the　law…book　known　as　Fleta。（6*）　The　strips　in　the　fields　belonging　to　the　several　tenants　were　divided　by　narrow　balks　of　turf；　and　when　the　field　lay　fallow；　or　after　the　harvest　had　been　removed；　the　entire　field　was　turned　into　a　common　pasture　for　the　use　of　the　village　cattle。　The　whole　area　was　protected　by　an　inclosure　while　it　was　under　crop。　　　　　A　curious　deviation　is　apparent　in　the　following　instance；　taken　from　the　cartulary　of　Malmesbury。　The　Abbey　makes　an　exchange　with　a　neighbour　who　has　rights　of　common　on　some　of　the　convent's　land；　and　therefore　does　not　allow　of　its　being　cultivated　and　inclosed　（inhoc　facere）。　In　return　for　certain　concessions　on　the　part　of　the　Abbey；　this　neighbouring　owner　agrees　that　fallow　pasture　should　be　turned　into　arable　on　the　condition　that　after　the　harvest　it　should　return　to　common　use；　as　well　as　the　land　not　actually　under　seed。　Lastly　comes　a　provision　about　the　villains　of　the　person　entering　into　agreement　with　the　Abbey：　if　they　do　not　want　to　conform　to　the　new　arrangement　of　cultivation；　they　will　be　admitted　to　their　strips　for　the　purpose　of　ploughing　up　or　using　the　fallow。（7*）　The　case　is　interesting　in　two　respects：　it　shows　the　intimate　connexion　between　the　construction　of　the　inclosure　（inhoc）　and　the　raising　of　the　crop；　the　special　paragraph　about　the　villains　gives　us　to　understand　that　something　more　than　the　usual　rotation　of　crops　was　meant：　the　'inhokare'　appears　in　opposition　either　to　the　ordinary　ploughing　up　of　the　fallow；　or　in　a　general　sense　to　its　use　for　pasture；　it　seems　to　indicate　extra…cultivation　of　such　land　as　ought　to　have　remained　uncultivated。　These　considerations　are　borne　out　by　other　documents。　In　a　trial　of　Edward　I's　time　the　'inheche'　is　explained　in　as　many　words　as　the　ploughing　up　of　fallow　for　a　crop　of　wheat；　oats；　or　barley。（8*）　The　Gloucester　Survey；　in　describing　one　of　the　manors　belonging　to　the　Abbey；　arranges　its　land　into　four　fields　（campi）；　each　consisting　of　several　parts：　the　first　field　is　said　to　contain　174　acres；　the　second　63；　the　third　109；　the　fourth　69　acres。　Two…thirds　of　the　whole　are　subjected　to　the　usual　modes　of　cultivation　under　a　three…course　system；　and　one…third　remains　for　pasture。　But　out　of　this　last　third；　40　acres　of　the　first　field　（of　174　acres）　get　inclosed　and　used　for　crop　in　one　year；　and　20　acres　of　the　second　in　another。（9*）　In　this　way　the　ordinary　three…course　alternation　becomes　somewhat　more　complicated；　and　it　will　be　hardly　too　bold　a　guess　to　suppose　that　such　extra…cultivation　implied　some　manuring　of　such　patches　as　were　deprived　of　their　usual　rest　once　in　three　years。　In　contradiction　to　the　customary　arrangement　which　did　not　require　any　special　manuring　except　that　which　was　incident　to　the　use　of　arable　as　pasture　for　the　cattle　after　the　harvest；　we　find　plots　set　apart　for　more　intense　cultivation；（10*）　and　it　is　to　be　noticed　that　the　reckoning　in　connexion　with　them　does　not　start　from　the　division　according　to　three　parts；　but　supposes　a　separate　classification　in　two　sections。　　　　　Another　fact　worth　noticing　in　the　Gloucester　instance　is　the　irregular　distribution　of　acres　in　the　'fields；'　and　the　division　of　the　entire　arable　into　four　unequal　parts。　The　husbandry　is　conducted　on　the　three…course　system；　and　still　four　fields　are　mentioned；　and　there　is　no　simple　relation　between　the　number　of　acres　which　they　respectively　contain　（174；　63；　109；　69）。　It　seems　obvious　that　the　expression　'field'　（campus）　is　used　here　not　in　the　ordinary　sense　suggested　by　such　records　as　spring…field；　winter…field；　and　the　like；　but　in　reference　to　the　topography　of　the　district。　The　whole　territory　under　cultivation　was　divided　into　a　number　of　squares　or　furlongs　which　lay　round　the　village　in　four　large　groups。　The　alternation　of　crops　distributed　the　same　area　into　three　according　to　a　mode　not　described　by　the　Survey；　and　it　looks　proVable　at　first　glance　that　each　of　the　'fields'　（campi）　contained　elements　of　all　three　courses。　The　supposition　becomes　a　certainty；　if　we　reflect　that　it　gives　the　only　possible　explanation　of　the　way　in　which　the　twofold　alternation　of　the　'inhoc'　is　made　to　fit　with　the　threefold　rotation　of　crops：　every　year　some　of　the　land　in　each　campus　had　to　remain　in　fallow；　and　could　be　inclosed　or　taken　under　'inhoc。'　Had　the　campus　as　a　whole　been　reserved　for　one　of　the　three　courses；　there　would　have　been　room　for　the　'inhoc'　only　every　three　years。　　　　　I　have　gone　into　some　details　in　connexion　with　this　instance　because　it　presents　a　deviation　from　ordinary　rules；　and　even　a　deviation　from　the　usual　phraseology；　and　it　is　probable　that　the　exceptional　use　of　words　depended　on　the　exceptional　process　of　farming。　A　new　species　of　arable　　the　manured　plot　under　'inhoc'　　came　into　use；　and　naturally　disturbed　the　plain　arrangement　of　the　old…fashioned　three　courses；　the　lands　had　to　be　grouped　anew　into　four　sections　which　went　under　the　accustomed　designation　of　'fields；'　although　they　did　not　fit　in　with　the　'three　fields'　of　the　old　system。　In　most　cases；　however；　our　records　use　the　word　'field'　（campus）　in　that　very　sense　of　land　under　one　of　the　'courses；'　which　is　out　of　the　question　in　the　case　taken　from　the　Gloucester　Cartulary。　The　common　use　is　especially　clear　when　the　documents　want　to　describe　the　holding　of　a　person；　and　mention　the　number　of　acres　in　each　'field。'　The　Abbot　of　Malmesbury；　e。g。；　enfeoffs　one　Robert　with　a　virgate　formerly　held　'in　the　fields'　by　A。；　tw