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economical　condition　of　most　of　the　countries　of　Asia；　as　it　has

been　from　beyond　the　commencement　of　authentic　history；　and　is

still；　wherever　not　disturbed　by　foreign　influences。

　　　　In　the　agricultural　communities　of　ancient　Europe　whose　early

condition　is　best　known　to　us；　the　course　of　things　was

different。　These；　at　their　origin；　were　mostly　small

town…communities；　at　the　first　plantation　of　which；　in　an

unoccupied　country；　or　in　one　from　which　the　former　inhabitants

had　been　expelled；　the　land　which　was　taken　possession　of　was

regularly　divided；　in　equal　or　in　graduated　allotments；　among　the

families　composing　the　community。　In　some　cases；　instead　of　a

town　there　was　a　confederation　of　towns；　occupied　by　people　of

the　same　reputed　race；　and　who　were　supposed　to　have　settled　in

the　country　about　the　same　time。　Each　family　produced　its　own

food　and　the　materials　of　its　clothing；　which　were　worked　up

within　itself；　usually　by　the　women　of　the　family；　into　the

coarse　fabrics　with　which　the　age　was　contented。　Taxes　there　were

none；　as　there　were　either　no　paid　officers　of　government；　or　if

there　were；　their　payment　had　been　provided　for　by　a　reserved

portion　of　land；　cultivated　by　slaves　on　account　of　the　state；

and　the　army　consisted　of　the　body　of　citizens。　The　whole　produce

of　the　soil；　therefore；　belonged；　without　deduction；　to　the

family　which　cultivated　it。　So　long　as　the　process　of　events

permitted　this　disposition　of　property　to　last；　the　state　of

society　was；　for　the　majority　of　the　free　cultivators；　probably

not　an　undesirable　one；　and　under　it；　in　some　cases；　the　advance

of　mankind　in　intellectual　culture　was　extraordinarily　rapid　and

brilliant。　This　more　especially　happened　where；　along　with

advantageous　circumstances　of　race　and　climate；　and　no　doubt　with

many　favourable　accidents　of　which　all　trace　is　now　lost；　was

combined　the　advantage　of　a　position　on　the　shores　of　a　great

inland　sea；　the　other　coasts　of　which　were　already　occupied　by

settled　communities。　The　knowledge　which　in　such　a　position　was

acquired　of　foreign　productions；　and　the　easy　access　of　foreign

ideas　and　inventions；　made　the　chain　of　routine；　usually　so

strong　in　a　rude　people；　hang　loosely　on　these　communities。　To

speak　only　of　their　industrial　development；　they　early　acquired

variety　of　wants　and　desires；　which　stimulated　them　to　extract

from　their　own　soil　the　utmost　which　they　knew　how　to　make　it

yield；　and　when　their　soil　was　sterile；　or　after　they　had　reached

the　limit　of　its　capacity；　they　often　became　traders；　and　bought

up　the　productions　of　foreign　countries；　to　sell　them　in　other

countries　with　a　profit。

　　　　The　duration；　however；　of　this　state　of　things　was　from　the

first　precarious。　These　little　communities　lived　in　a　state　of

almost　perpetual　war。　For　this　there　were　many　causes。　In　the

ruder　and　purely　agricultural　communities　a　frequent　cause　was

the　mere　pressure　of　their　increasing　population　upon　their

limited　land；　aggravated　as　that　pressure　so　often　was　by

deficient　harvests；　in　the　rude　state　of　their　agriculture；　and

depending　as　they　did　for　food　upon　a　very　small　extent　of

country。　On　these　occasions；　the　community　often　emigrated　en

masse；　or　sent　forth　a　swarm　of　its　youth；　to　seek；　sword　in

hand；　for　some　less　warlike　people；　who　could　be　expelled　from

their　land；　or　detained　to　cultivate　it　as　slaves　for　the　benefit

of　their　despoilers。　What　the　less　advanced　tribes　did　from

necessity；　the　more　prosperous　did　from　ambition　and　the　military

spirit：　and　after　a　time　the　whole　of　these　city…communities　were

either　conquerors　or　conquered。　In　some　cases；　the　conquering

state　contented　itself　with　imposing　a　tribute　on　the　vanquished：

who　being；　in　consideration　of　that　burden；　freed　from　the

expense　and　trouble　of　their　own　military　and　naval　protection；

might　enjoy　under　it　a　considerable　share　of　economical

prosperity；　while　the　ascendant　community　obtained　a　surplus　of

wealth；　available　for　purposes　of　collective　luxury　or

magnificence。　From　such　a　surplus　the　Parthenon　and　the　Propylaea

were　built；　the　sculptures　of　Pheidias　paid　for；　and　the

festivals　celebrated；　for　which　AEschylus；　Sophocles；　Euripides；

and　Aristophanes　composed　their　dramas。　But　this　state　of

political　relations；　most　useful；　while　it　lasted；　to　the

progress　and　ultimate　interest　of　mankind；　had　not　the　elements

of　durability。　A　small　conquering　community　which　does　not

incorporate　its　conquests；　always　ends　by　being　conquered。

Universal　dominion；　therefore；　at　last　rested　with　the　people　who

practised　this　art　　with　the　Romans；　who；　whatever　were　their

other　devices；　always　either　began　or　ended　by　taking　a　great

part　of　the　land　to　enrich　their　own　leading　citizens；　and　by

adopting　into　the　governing　body　the　principal　possessors　of　the

remainder。　It　is　unnecessary　to　dwell　on　the　melancholy

economomical　history　of　the　Roman　empire。　When　inequality　of

wealth　once　commences；　in　a　community　not　constantly　engaged　in

repairing　by　industry　the　injuries　of　fortune；　its　advances　are

gigantic；　the　great　masses　of　wealth　swallow　up　the　smaller。　The

Roman　empire　ultimately　became　covered　with　the　vast　landed

possessions　of　a　comparatively　few　families；　for　whose　luxury；

and　still　more　for　whose　ostentation；　the　most　costly　products

were　raised；　soil　were　slaves；　or　small　tenants　in　a　while　the

condition。　cultivators　of　the　soil　were　slaves；　or　small　tenants

in　nearly　servile　condition。　From　this　time　the　weaLth　of　the

empire　progressively　declined。　In　the　beginning；　the　public

revenues；　and　the　resources　of　rich　individuals；　sufficed　at

least　to　cover　Italy　with　splendid　edifices；　public　and　private；

but　at　length　so　dwindled　under　the　enervating　influences　of

misgovernment；　that　what　remained　was　not　even　sufficient　to　keep

those　edifices　from　decay。　The　strength　and　riches　of　the

civilized　world　became　inadequate　to　make　head　against　the　nomad

population　which　skirted　its　northern　frontier；　they　overran　the

empire；　and　a　different　order　of　things　succeeded。

　　　　In　the　new　frame　in　which　European　society　was　now　cast；　the

population　of　each　country　may　be　considered　as　composed；　in

unequal　proportions；　of　two　distinct　nations　or　races；　the

conquerors　and　the　conquered：　the　first　the　proprietors　of　the

land；　the　latter　the　tillers　of　it。　These　tillers　were　allowed　to

occupy　the　land　on　conditions　which；　being　the　product　of　force；

were　always　onerous；　but　seldom　to　the　extent　of　absolute

slavery。　Already；　in　the　later　times　of　the　Roman　empire；　predial

slavery　had　extensively　transformed　itself　into　a　kind　of

serfdom：　the　coloni　of　the　Romans　were　rather　villeins　than

actual　slaves；　and　the　incapacity　and　distaste　of　the　barbarian

conquerors　for　personally　superintending　industrial　occupations；

left　no　alternative　but　to　allow　to　the　cultivators；　as　an

incentive　to　exertion；　some　real　interest　in　the　soil。　If；　for

example；　they　were　compelled　to　labour；　three　days　in　the　week；

for　their　superior；　the　produce　of　the　remaining　days　was　their

own。　If　they　were　required　to　supply　the　provisions　of　various

sorts；　ordinarily　needed　for　the　consumption　of　the　castle；　and

were　often　subject　to　requisitions　in　excess；　yet　after　supplying

these　demands　they　were　suffered　to　dispose　at　their　will　of

whatever　additional　produce　they　could　raise。　Under　this　system

during　the　Middle　Ages　it　was　not　impossible；　no　more　than　in

modern　Russia　（where；　up　to　the　recent　measure　of　emancipation；

the　same　system　still　essentially　prevailed）；　for　serfs　to

acquire　property；　and　in　fact；　their　accumulations　are　the

primitive　source　of　the　wealth　of　modern　Europe。

　　　　In　that　age　of　violence　and　disorder；　the　first　use　made　by　a

serf　of　any　small　provision　which　he　had　been　able　to　accumulate；

was　to　buy　his　freedom　and　withdraw　himself　to　some　town　or

fortified　village；　which　had　remained　undestroyed　from　the　time

of　the　Roman　dominion；　or；　without　buying　his　freedom；　to　abscond

thither。　In　that　place　of　refuge；　surrounded　by　others　of　his　own

class。　he　attempted　to　live；　secured　in　some　measure　from　the

outrages　and　exactions　of　the　warrior　caste；　by　his　own　prowess

and　that　of　his　fellows。　These　emancipated　serfs　mostly　became

artificers；　and　lived　by　exchanging　the　produce　of　their　industry

for　the　surplus　food　and　material　which　the　soil　yielded　to　its

feudal　proprietors。　This　gave　rise　to　a　sort　of　European

counterpart　of　the　economical　condition　of　Asiatic　countries；

except　that；　in　lieu　of　a　single　monarch　and　a　fluctuating　body

of　favourites　and　employ閟；　there　was　a　numerous　and　in　a

considerable　degree　fixed　class　of　great　landholders；　exhibiting

far　less　splendour；　because　individually　disposing　of　a　much

smaller　surplus　produce；　and　for　a　long　time　expending　the　chief

part　of　it　in　maintaining　the　body　of　retainers　whom　the　warlike

habits　of　society；