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the evolution of modern medicine(现代医药的演变)-第26部分

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Galen。     No    contributions     were    made     to  anatomy;     as  dissections     were 

prohibited;   nor   to   physiology;   and   the   pathology   was   practically   that   of 

Galen。 Certain   new and important diseases were described; a number   of 

new     and   active   remedies     were    introduced;    chiefly   from   the    vegetable 

kingdom。 The Arabian hospitals were well organized and were deservedly 

famous。 No such hospital exists today in Cairo as that which was built by 

al…Mansur   Gilafun   in   1283。 The   description   of   it   by   Makrizi;  quoted   by 

Neuburger;'16'        reads   like   that  of  a  twentieth     century    institution   with 

hospital units。 

     '16'   〃I   have   founded     this  institution    for  my   equals    and   for  those 

beneath me; it is intended for rulers and subjects; for soldiers and for the 

emir;   for   great   and   small;   freemen   and   slaves;   men   and   women。〃   〃He 

ordered      medicaments;       physicians     and    everything     else   that   could    be 

required   by   anyone   in   any   form   of   sickness;   placed   male   and   female 

attendants at the  disposal of   the patients;  determined   their  pay;  provided 

beds for patients and supplied them with every kind of covering that could 

be required in any complaint。 Every class of patient was accorded separate 

accommodation: the four halls of the hospital were set apart for those with 

fever   and   similar   complaints;   one   part   of   the   building   was   reserved   for 

eye…patients; one for the wounded; one for those suffering from diarrhoea; 

one for women; a room for convalescents was divided into two parts; one 

for men and one for women。 Water was laid on to all these departments。 

One room was set apart for cooking food; preparing medicine and cooking 

syrups; another for the compounding of confections; balsams; eye…salves; 

etc。 The head…physician had an apartment to himself wherein he delivered 

medical lectures。 The number of patients was unlimited; every sick or poor 

person   who   came   found   admittance;   nor   was   the   duration          of   his   stay 

restricted; and even those who were sick at home were supplied with every 

necessity。〃Makrizi。 

     〃In   later   times   this   hospital   was   much   extended   and   improved。   The 

nursing   was   admirable   and   no   stint   was   made   of   drugs   and   appliances; 

each patient was provided with means upon leaving so that he should not 

require   immediately   to   undertake   heavy   work。〃   Neuburger:   History   of 



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Medicine; Vol。 1; p。 378。 

       It was in   the domain of   chemistry that the Arabs made the greatest 

advances。 You may remember that; in Egypt; chemistry had already made 

considerable strides; and I alluded to Prof。 Elliot Smith's view that one of 

the great leaps in civilization was the discovery in the Nile Valley of the 

metallurgy      of   copper。    In  the   brilliant   period    of  the   Ptolemies;     both 

chemistry  and   pharmacology   were   studied;   and   it   seems   not   improbable 

that;   when   the   Arabs   took   Alexandria   in   the   year   640;   there   were   still 

many workers in these subjects。 

     The    most    famous     of   those   early   Arabic    writers    is  the  somewhat 

mythical   Geber;   who   lived   in   the   first   half   of   the   eighth   century;   and 

whose      writings   had    an  extraordinary   influence       throughout     the   Middle 

Ages。   The   whole   story   of   Geber   is   discussed   by   Berthelot   in   his   〃La 

chimie au moyen age〃 (Paris; 1896)。 The transmission of Arabian science 

to   the   Occident   began   with   the   Crusades;   though   earlier   a   filtering   of 

important knowledge in mathematics and astronomy had reached Southern 

and   Middle   Europe through   Spain。 Among   the translators several   names 

stand out prominently。 Gerbert; who became later Pope Sylvester II; is said 

to have given us our present Arabic figures。 You may read the story of his 

remarkable life in Taylor;'17' who says he was 〃the first mind of his time; 

its greatest teacher; its most eager learner; and most universal scholar。〃 But 

he does not seem to have done much directly for medicine。 

     '17' The Mediaeval Mind; Vol。 I; p。 280。 

       The Graeco…Arabic learning passed into Europe through two sources。 

As   I   have   already   mentioned;   Constantinus   Africanus;   a   North   African 

Christian     monk;     widely    travelled    and    learned    in  languages;     came    to 

Salernum and translated many works from Arabic into Latin; particularly 

those of Hippocrates and Galen。 The 〃Pantegni〃 of the latter became one 

of   the   most   popular  text…books   of   the Middle Ages。 A  long   list   of   other 

works     which     he   translated   is  given    by   Steinschneider。'17a'       It  is  not 

unlikely   that   Arabic   medicine   had   already   found   its   way   to   Salernum 

before the time of Constantine; but the influence of his translations upon 

the later Middle Ages was very great。 

     '17a' Steinschneider: Virchow's Arch。; Berl。; 1867; xxxvii; 351。 



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       The second was a more important source through the Latin translators 

in Spain; particularly in Toledo; where; from the middle of the twelfth till 

the   middle   of   the   thirteenth   century;   an   extraordinary   number   of Arabic 

works in philosophy; mathematics and astronomy were translated。 Among 

the translators; Gerard of Cremona is prominent; and has been called the 

〃Father  of Translators。〃   He   was   one   of   the   brightest   intelligences   of   the 

Middle Ages; and did a work of the first importance to science; through 

the extraordinary variety of material he put in circulation。 Translations; not 

only of the medical writers; but of an indiscriminate crowd of authors in 

philosophy and general literature; came from his pen。 He furnished one of 

the first translations of the famous 〃Almagest〃 of Ptolemy; which opened 

the    eyes    of   his  contemporaries       to   the   value    of   the   Alexandrian 

astronomy。'18' Leclerc gives a list of seventy…one works from his hand。 

     '18' For an account of that remarkable work see German translation by 

Manitius; Leipzig; 1912。 

       Many   of   the   translators   of   the   period   were   Jews;   and   many   of   the 

works were translated from Hebrew into Latin。 For years Arabic had been 

the learned language of the Jews; and in a large measure it was through 

them that the Arabic knowledge and the translations passed into South and 

Central Europe。 

     The Arab writer whose influence on mediaeval thought was the most 

profound was Averroes; the great commentator on Aristotle。 



                 THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES 



       THE most striking intellectual phenomenon of the thirteenth century 

is the rise of the universities。 The story of their foundation is fully stated in 

Rashdall's great work (Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages; Oxford; 

1895)。   Monastic   and   collegiate   schools;   seats   of   learning   like   Salernum; 

student guilds as at Bologna; had tried to meet the educational needs of the 

age。 The word 〃university〃 literally means an association; and was not at 

first restricted to learned bodies。 The origin appears to have been in certain 

guilds of students formed for mutual protection associated at some place 

specially    favorable     for  studythe    attraction   generally    being   a  famous 

teacher。    The   University     of  Bologna     grew   up   about   guilds   formed     by 



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students   of   law;   and   at   Paris;   early   in   the   twelfth   century;   there   were 

communities of teachers; chiefly in philosophy and theology。 In this way 

arose     two   different    types    of  mediaeval      university。     The   universities     of 

Northern Italy were largely controlled by students; who were grouped in 

different   〃nations。〃   They   arranged   the   lectures   and   had           control   of   the 

appointment of teachers。 On the other hand; in the universities founded on 

the Paris model the masters had control of the studies; though the students; 

also in nations; managed their own affairs。 

     Two   universities   have   a   special   interest   at   this   period   in   connection 

with the development of medical studies; Bologna and Montpellier。 At the 

former      the   study    of  anatomy      was   
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