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the evolution of modern medicine-及22何蛍
酔楯荷恬: 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ○ 賜 ★ 辛酔堀貧和鍬匈 梓囚徒貧議 Enter 囚辛指欺云慕朕村匈 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ● 辛指欺云匈競何! 泌惚云慕短嗤堋響頼���誅卒亮茂�俊彭堋響��辛聞喘貧圭 "辺茄欺厘議箝誓匂" 孔嬬 才 "紗秘慕禰" 孔嬬��
for this purpose。 It seems probable that under the strong influence of Taddeo there was an occasional dissection at Bologna�察�but it was not until Mundinus ��professor from 1306 to 1326�� took the chair that the study of anatomy became popular。 The bodies were usually those of condemned criminals�察�but in the year 1319 there is a record of a legal procedure against four medical students for body´snatchingthe first record�察�as far as I know�察�of this gruesome practice。 In 1316�察�Mundinus issued his work on anatomy�察�which served as a text´book for more than two hundred years。 He quotes from Galen the amusing reasons why a man should write a book�此 �Firstly�察�to satisfy his own friends�察�secondly�察�to exercise his best mental powers�察�and thirdly�察�to be saved from the oblivion incident to old age。; Scores of manuscripts of his work must have existed�察�but they are now excessively rare in Italy。 The book was first printed at Pavia in 1478�察�in a small folio without figures。 It was very often reprinted in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries。 The quaint illustration shows us the mediaeval method of teaching anatomy�此�the lecturer sitting on a chair reading from Galen�察�while a barber surgeon�察�or an ;Ostensor�察─�opens the cavities of the body。
I have already referred to the study of medicine by women at Salernum。 Their names are also early met with in the school of Bologna。 Mundinus is said to have had a valuable assistant�察�a young girl�察�Alessandra Giliani�察�an enthusiastic dissector�察�who was the first to practice the injection of the blood vessels with colored liquids。 She died�察�consumed by her labors�察�at the early age of nineteen�察�and her monument is still to be seen。
Bologna honored its distinguished professors with magnificent tombs�察�sixteen or seventeen of which�察�in a wonderful state of preservation�察�may still be seen in the Civic Museum。 That of Mundinus also existsa sepulchral bas´relief on the wall of the Church of San Vitale at Bologna。��19��
��19�А�For these figures and for points relating to the old school at Bologna see F。 G。 Cavezza�此 �Le Scuole dell' antico Studio Bolognese�察�Milano�察�1896。
The other early mediaeval university of special interest in medicine is that of Montpellier。 With it are connected three teachers who have left great names in our storyArnold of Villanova�察�Henri de Mondeville and Guy de Chauliac。 The city was very favorably situated not far from the Spanish border�察�and the receding tide of the Arab invasion in the eighth century had left a strong Arabic influence in that province。 The date of the origin of the university is uncertain�察�but there were teachers of medicine there in the twelfth century�察�though it was not until 1289 that it was formally founded by a papal bull。
Arnold of Villanova was one of the most prolific writers of the Middle Ages。 He had travelled much�察�was deeply read in Arabic medicine and was also a student of law and of philosophy。 He was an early editor of the Regimen Sanitatis�察�and a strong advocate of diet and hygiene。 His views on disease were largely those of the Arabian physicians�察�and we cannot see that he himself made any very important contribution to our knowledge�察�but he was a man of strong individuality and left an enduring mark on mediaeval medicine�察�as one may judge from the fact that among the first hundred medical books printed there were many associated with his name。 He was constantly in trouble with the Church�察�though befriended by the Popes on account of his medical knowledge。 There is a Bull of Clement V asking the bishops to search for a medical book by Arnold dedicated to himself�察�but not many years later his writings were condemned as heretical。
In Henri de Mondeville we have the typical mediaeval surgeon�察�and we know his work now very thoroughly from the editions of his ;Anatomy; and ;Surgery; edited by Pagel ��Berlin�察�1889´1892���察�and the fine French edition by Nicaise ��Paris�察�1893��。 The dominant Arabic influence is seen in that he quotes so large a proportion of these authors�察�but he was an independent observer and a practical surgeon of the first rank。 He had a sharp wit and employed a bitter tongue against the medical abuses of his day。 How the Hippocratic humors dominated practice at this time you may see at a glance from the table prepared by Nicaise from the works of de Mondeville。 We have here the whole pathology of the period。
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TABLEAU DES HUMEURS D'APRES H。 DE MONDEVILLE Flegme naturel。 F。 aqueux。 Flegme F。 mucilagineux。 F。 vitreux。 Flegme non naturel F sale。 F。 doux。 F。 pontique�察�2 especes。 F。 acide�察�2 especes。 Bile naturelle。 Bile B。 citrine。 B。 vitelline Bile non naturelle B。 praline。 B。 aerugineuse。 B。 brulee�察�3 especes。 Sang naturel。 non naturel�察�5 especes。 Melancolie naturelle。 non naturelle�察�5 especes。 =
A still greater name in the history of this school is Guy de Chauliac�察�whose works have also been edited by Nicaise ��Paris�察�1890��。 His ;Surgery; was one of the most important text´books of the late Middle Ages。 There are many manuscripts of it�察�some fourteen editions in the fifteenth century and thirty´eight in the sixteenth�察�and it continued to be reprinted far into the seventeenth century。 He too was dominated by the surgery of the Arabs�察�and on nearly every page one reads of the sages Avicenna�察�Albucasis or Rhazes。 He lays down four conditions necessary for the making of a surgeonthe first is that he must be learned�察�the second�察�expert�察�the third that he should be clever�察�and the fourth that he should be well disciplined。
You will find a very discerning sketch of the relation of these two men to the history of surgery in the address given at the St。 Louis Congress in 1904 by Sir Clifford Allbutt。��20�А�They were strong men with practical minds and good hands�察�whose experience taught them wisdom。 In both there was the blunt honesty that so often characterizes a good surgeon�察�and I commend to modern surgeons de Mondeville's saying�此 �If you have operated conscientiously on the rich for a proper fee�察�and on the poor for charity�察�you need not play the monk�察�nor make pilgrimages for your soul。;
��20�А�Allbutt�此 �Historical Relations of Medicine and Surgery�察�London�察�Macmillan Co。�察�1905。
One other great mediaeval physician may be mentioned�察�Peter of Abano ��a small town near Padua�察�famous for its baths��。 He is the first in a long line of distinguished physicians connected with the great school of Padua。 Known as ;the Conciliator�察─�from his attempt to reconcile the diverse views on philosophy and medicine�察�he had an extraordinary reputation as a practitioner and author�察�the persistence of which is well illustrated by the fact that eight of the one hundred and eighty´two medical books printed before 1481 were from his pen。 He seems to have taught medicine in Paris�察�Bologna and Padua。 He was a devoted astrologer�察�had a reputation among the people as a magician and�察�like his contemporary�察�Arnold of Villanova�察�came into conflict with the Church and appears to have been several times before the Inquisition�察�indeed it is said that he escaped the stake only by a timely death。 He was a prolific commentator on Aristotle�察�and his exposition of the ;problems; had a great vogue。 The early editions of his texts are among the most superb works ever printed。 He outlived his reputation as a magician�察�and more than a century after his death Frederick�察�Duke of Urbino�察�caused his effigies to be set up over the gate of the palace at Padua with this inscription��
PETRUS APONUS PATAVINUS PHILOSOPHIAE MEDICINAEQUE SCIENTISSIMUS�察�OB IDQUE�察�CONCILIATORIS NOMEN ADEPTUS�察�ASTROLOGIAE VERO ADEO PERITUS�察�UT IN MAGIAE SUSPICIONEM INCIDERIT�察�FALSOQUE DE HAERESI POSTULATUS�察�ABSOLUTUS FUERIT。��21��
��21�А�Naude�此 �History of Magick�察�London�察�1657�察�p。 182�察�or the original�此�Apologie pour les grands hommes soupconnez de magic�察�e。g。�察�ed。 Amst。�察�1719�察�p。 275。
It is said that Abano caused to be painted the astronomical figures in the great hall of the palace at Padua。
One characteristic of mediaeval medicine is its union with theology�察�which is not remarkable�察�as the learning of the time was chiefly in the hands of the clergy。 One of the most popular works�察�the ;Thesaurus Pauperum�察─�was written by Petrus Hispanus�察�afterwards Pope John XXI。 We may judge of the pontifical practice from the page here reproduced�察�which probably includes�察�under the term ;iliac passion�察─�all varieties of appendicitis。
For our purpose two beacons illuminate the spirit of the thirteenth century in its outlook on man and nature。 Better than Abelard or St。 Thomas Aquinas�察�and much better than any physicians�察�Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon represent the men who were awake to greet the rising of the sun of science。 What a contrast in their lives and in their works� �The great
酔楯荷恬: 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ○ 賜 ★ 辛酔堀貧和鍬匈 梓囚徒貧議 Enter 囚辛指欺云慕朕村匈 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ● 辛指欺云匈競何!
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