vill3-第45部分

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e　holding　was　united　because　an　ox　could　not　be　divided；　the　plots　might　be　smaller　or　larger；　but　everywhere　they　were　connected　with　a　scheme　of　which　the　plough…team　was　the　unit。　An　increasing　population　had　to　take　care　of　itself；　and　to　try　to　fit　itself　into　the　existing　divisions　by　family　arrangements；　marriage；　adoption；　reclaiming　of　new　land；　employment　for　hire；　by…professions；　and　emigration。　The　manorial　factor　comes　in　to　make　everYthing　artificially　regular　and　rigid。　　　　　If　we　examine　the　open…field　system　and　its　relation　to　the　holdings　of　individual　peasants；　we　see；　as　it　were；　the　framework　of　a　peasant　community　that　has　swerved　from　the　path　of　its　original　development。　The　gathering　of　scattered　and　intermixed　strips　into　holdings　points　to　practices　of　division　or　allotment：　these　practices　are　the　very　essence　of　the　whole；　and　they　alone　can　explain　the　glaring　inconveniencies　of　scattered　ownership　coupled　with　artificial　concentration。　But　redivision　of　the　arable　is　not　seen　in　the　documents　of　our　period。　There　is　no　shifting　of　strips；　no　changes　in　the　quantities　allotted　to　each　family。　Everything　goes　by　heredity　and　settled　rules　of　family　property；　as　if　the　husbandry　was　not　arranged　for　communal　ownership　and　re…allotment。　I　should　like　to　compare　the　whole　to　the　icebound　surface　of　a　northern　sea：　it　is　not　smooth；　although　hard　and　immoveable；　and　the　hills　and　hollows　of　the　uneven　plain　remind　one　of　the　billows　that　rolled　when　it　was　yet　unfrozen。　　　　　The　treatment　of　the　arable　gives　the　clue　to　all　other　sides　of　the　subject。　The　rights　of　common　usage　of　meadow　and　pasture　carry　us　back　to　practices　which　must　have　been　originally　applied　to　arable　also。　When　one　reads　of　a　meadow　being　cut　up　into　strips　and　partitioned　for　a　year　among　the　members　of　the　community　by　regular　rotation　or　by　lot；　one　does　not　see　why　only　the　grass　land　should　be　thus　treated　while　there　is　no　reallotment　of　the　arable　plots。　As　for　the　waste；　it　does　not　even　admit　of　set　boundaries；　and　the　only　possible　means　of　apportioning　its　use　is　to　prescribe　what　and　how　many　heads　of　cattle　each　holding　may　send　out　upon　it。　The　close　affinity　between　the　different　parts　of　the　village　soil　is　especially　illustrated　by　the　fact；　that　the　open…field　arable　is　treated　as　common　through　the　greater　part　of　the　year。　Such　facts　are　more　than　survivals；　more　than　stray　relics　of　a　bygone　time。　The　communal　element　of　English　mediaeval　husbandry　becomes　conspicuous　in　the　individualistic　elements　that　grow　out　of　it。　　　　　The　question　has　been　asked　whether　we　ought　not　to　regard　these　communal　arrangements　as　derived　from　the　exclusive　right　of　ownership；　and　the　power　of　coercion　vested　in　the　lord　of　the　soil。　I　think　that　many　features　in　the　constitution　of　the　thirteenth　century　manor　show　its　gradual　growth　and　comparatively　recent　origin。　The　so…called　manorial　system　consists；　in　truth；　in　the　peculiar　connexion　between　two　agrarian　bodies；　the　settlement　of　villagers　cultivating　their　own　fields；　and　the　home…estate　of　the　lord　tacked　on　to　this　settlement　and　dependent　on　the　work　supplied　by　it。　I　take　only　the　agrarian　side；　of　course；　and　do　not　mention　the　political　protection　which　stands　more　or　less　as　an　equivalent　for　the　profits　received　by　the　lord　from　the　peasantry。　And　as　for　the　agrarian　arrangement；　we　ought　to　keep　it　quite　distinct　from　forms　which　are　sometimes　confused　with　it　through　loose　terminology。　A　community　paying　taxes；　farmers　leasing　land　for　rent；　labourers　without　independent　husbandry　of　their　own；　may　be　all　subjected　to　some　lord；　but　their　subjection　is　not　manorial。　Two　elements　are　necessary　to　constitute　the　manorial　arrangement；　the　peasant　village　and　the　home　farm　worked　by　its　help。　　　　　If　we　turn　now　to　the　evidence　of　the　feudal　period；　we　shall　see　that　the　labour…service　relation；　although　very　marked　and　prevalent　in　most　cases；　is　by　no　means　the　only　one　that　should　be　taken　into　account。　In　a　large　number　of　cases　the　relation　between　lord　and　peasants　resolves　itself　into　money　payments；　and　this　is　only　another　way　of　saying　that　the　manorial　group　disaggregates　itself。　The　peasant　holding　gets　free　from　the　obligation　of　labouring　under　the　supervision　of　the　bailiff；　and　the　home　estate　may　be　either　thrown　over　or　managed　by　the　help　of　hired　servants　and　labourers。　　　　　But　alongside　of　these　facts；　testifying　to　a　progress　towards　modern　times；　we　find　survivals　of　a　more　ancient　order　of　things；　quite　as　incompatible　with　manorial　husbandry。　Instead　of　performing　work　on　the　demesne；　the　peasantry　are　sometimes　made　to　collect　and　furnish　produce　for　the　lord's　table　and　his　other　wants。　They　send　bread；　ale；　sheep；　chicken；　cheese；　etc。；　sometimes　to　a　neighbouring　castle　and　sometimes　a　good　way　off。　When　we　hear　of　the　firma　unius　noctis；　paid　to　the　king's　household　by　a　borough　or　a　village；　we　have　to　imagine　a　community　standing　entirely　by　itself　and　taxed　to　a　certain　tribute；　without　any　superior　land　estate　necessarily　engrafted；　upon　it；　a　home　farm　may　or　may　not　be　close　by；　but　its　management　is　not　dependent　on　the　customary　work　of　the　vill　（consuetudines　villae）；　and　the　connexion　between　the　two　is　casual。　The　facts　of　which　I　am　speaking　are　certainly　of　rare　occurrence　and　dying　out；　but　they　are　very　interesting　from　a　historical　point　of　view；　they　throw　light　on　a　condition　of　things　preceding　the　manorial　system；　and　characterised　by　a　large　over…lordship　exacting　tribute；　and　not　cultivating　land　by　help　of　the　peasantry。　　　　　We　come　precisely　to　the　same　conclusion　by　another　way。　The　feudal　landlord　is　represented　in　the　village　by　his　demesene　land；　and　by　the　servants　acting　as　his　helpers　in　administration。　Now；　the　demesne　land　is　often　found　intermixed　with　the　strips　of　the　peasantry。　This　seems　particularly　fitted　for　a　time　when　the　peasantry　did　not　collect　to　work　on　a　separate　home　farm；　but　simply　devoted　one　part　of　the　labour　on　their　own　ground　to　the　use　of　the　lord。　What　I　mean　is；　that　if　a　demesne　consisted　of；　say；　every　fifth　acre　in　the　village　fields；　the　teams　of　four　virgaters　composing　the　plough　would　traverse　this　additional　acre　after　going　over　four　of　their　own　instead　of　being　called　up　under　the　supervision　of　the　bailiff；　to　do　work　on　an　independent　estate。　The　work　performed　by　the　peasants　when　the　demesne　is　still　in　intermixture　with　the　village　land；　appears　as　an　intermediate　stage　between　the　tribute　paid　by　a　practically　self…dependent　community；　and　the　double　husbandry　of　a　manorial　estate　linked　to　a　village。　　　　　Another　feature　of　transition　is　perceivable　in　the　history　of　the　class　of　servants　or　ministers　who　collect　and　supervise　the　dues　and　services　of　the　peasants。　The　feudal　arrangement　is　quite　as　much　characterised　by　the　existence　of　these　middlemen　as　modern　life　by　the　agreements　and　money　dealings　which　have　rendered　it　useless。　In　the　period　preceding　the　manorial　age　we　see　fewer　officers；　and　their　interference　in　the　life　of　the　community　is　but　occasional。　The　gathering　of　tribute；　the　supervision　of　a　few　labour　duties　in　addition；　did　not　require　a　large　staff　of　ministers。　It　was　in　the　interest　of　the　lord　to　dispense　as　much　as　possible　with　their　costly　help；　and　to　throw　what　obligations　there　were　to　be　performed　on　the　community　itself。　It　seems　to　me　that　the　feudal　age　has　preserved　several　traces　of　institutions　belonging　to　that　period　of　transition。　The　older　surveys；　especially　the　Kentish　ones；　show　a　very　remarkable　development　of　carriage　duties　which　must　have　been　called　forth　by　the　necessity　of　sending　produce　to　the　lord's　central　halls　or　courts；　while　the　home　farms　were　still　few　and　small。　The　riding　bailiffs　appear　in　ancient　documents　in　a　position　which　is　gradually　modified　as　time　goes　on。　They　begin　by　forming　a　very　conspicuous　class　among　the　tenants；　in　fact　the　foremost　rank　of　the　peasantry。　These　radmen；　radulfs；　rodknights；　riders；　are　privileged　people；　and　mostly　rank　with　the　free　tenants；　but　they　are　selected　from　among　the　villagers；　and　very　closely　resemble　the　hundredors；　whose　special　duties　have　kept　up　their　status　among　the　general　decay。　In　later　times；　in　the　second　half　of　the　thirteenth　century　and　in　the　fourteenth；　it　would　be　impossible　to　distinguish　such　a　class　of　riding　tenants。　They　exist　here　and　there；　but　in　most　cases　their　place　has　been　taken　by　direct　dependents　of　the　lord。　Besides；　as　the　home…farm　has　developed　on　every　manor；　their　office　has　lost　some　of　the　importance　it　had　at　a　time　when　there　was　a　good　deal　of　business　to　transact　in　the　way　of　communicating　between　the　villages　and　the　few　central　courts　to　which　rents　had　to　be　carried。　And；　lastly；　I　may　remind　the　reader　of　the　importance　attached　in　some　surveys　to　the　supervision　of　the　best　tenants　over　the　rest　at　the　boon　works。　The　socmen；　or　free　tenants；　or　holders　of　full　lands；　as　the　case　may　be；　have　to　ride　out　with　rods　in　their　hands　to　inspect　the　people　cutting　the　corn　or　making　hay。　These　customs　are　mostly　to　be　found　in　manors　with　a　particularly　archaic　constitution。　They　occur　very　often　on　ancient　d